Webquest History of Federal Policy

Federal Policy Towards Freedmen; Roadblock to Freedom

O dark, sad millions,--patiently and dumb

Waiting for God,--your hour, at last, has come,

And Freedom's song

Breaks the long silence of your night of wrong.

The South changed dramatically during and after the Civil War. Death, destruction and disorder touched many Southerners including freedmen, poor whites and slave holders. Not only had a tremendous loss of lives occurred, but there was also widespread destruction of crops, animals, land and other property. Slaves were emancipated and were ready to sing freedom's song. What would liberty be like for the freed people of color? Where would the freedmen fit into the social, economic, and political life of the South?

Federal policies enacted during the Civil War and Reconstruction had the capacity to create permanent improvements in the lives of the former slaves. Instead, these decisions added roadblocks on the way to freedom that resulted in little positive change in the lives of free people of color or in Southern society. The Army officers acted independently while they waited for decisions from Lincoln on what the national policies would be. Later, President Andrew Johnson also granted a great deal of control to the individual military commanders. The latter's individual political leanings and personal beliefs dramatically affected the way they established policy. Later when Congress and the President contended for control of Reconstruction, the army tried to administer a policy which was often changing.

Rather than take initiative in making critical decisions, the presidents sometimes left important decisions to people further down the chain of command. Brigadeer General Benjamin Butler, Commander at the Army base in Fortress Monroe, Virginia, devised a rationale to obtain additional workers though a new labor policy which had the effect of freeing some slaves. Several male slaves reported to Butler on May 24, 1861 and asked for asylum. Keeping in mind Lincoln's goal of winning the war along with his own dire need for workers, Butler used the able bodied "contrabands" as laborers for the Union side. His policy of employing Negro labor and offering asylum was a first step on the long road to emancipation.

Butler made this case for the "contrabands" not as an abolitionist but in response to a need for labor. Butler wanted to subjugate the Negro and treat him as property. Although it had the effect of emancipating many slaves, it also continued the practice of treating slaves as property. The federal government became the "new master".But yet, this decision which was made for military purposes had the effect of emancipating slaves.

A few months later Congress enforced Butler's actions by passing " An Act to Confiscate Property used for Insurrectionary Purposes," which came to be better known as the First Confiscation Act. This legislation invalidated the claims of slave owners who had used their slaves to advance the Confederate cause. Like Butler, the federal government still considered the former slaves property as did many southerners. At first only those slaves who were actually working on Confederate war projects were legally able to obtain refuge and work in the Union Army camps. Initially, the federal government sent back slaves who didn't work on Confederate projects. In reality such a rule was difficult to enforce. The word spread on the plantations that if you could get to the Union lines, you could get to freedom. On March 13, 1862, Congress forbade the use of federal military personnel to recover runaway slaves and return them to their owners. As a result, slaves came into Fortress Monroe and into other areas which had many forts and Union troops.

Slaves followed in the footsteps of the soldiers and began to trickle into the military camps. What began as a small flow quickly turned into a steady stream as slaves and their families flooded into military camps. Some fortunate fugitives were able to support themselves and families by laboring for the U.S. Army while in the camps. For those who needed the protection and government support, contraband camps came to be established.

The federal government agreed to supply the basic necessities of life including food, clothing, transportation, shelter, and since it was wartime, protection. In some areas such as Washington D.C., where large numbers of contrabands came, camps were established for the freedmen. One such camp, Freedman's Village located on Arlington Heights, Virginia, was considered to be a model camp. Yet conditions in this camp were less than ideal in some cases and barbaric in others. In some instances, the contrabands left the camps and returned to their masters' plantations as the treatment was so horrible. Because of the impressment of blacks as laborers on the Union side, some freed people of color decided to leave the Washington D. C. area to return to their masters via Navy gunboats. The military tried to keep them from returning to slavery because the Army wanted the slaves to work for their side. For freedmen to voluntarily leave Freedman's Village and other contraband camps to return to their former masters, indicates just how inhumane the treatment was in the camps. So despite the efforts of the government to create contraband camps the villagers often met with unkind and at times harsh conditions there.

Freedman's Village Arlington Heights Virginia May 7, 1864 Harper's Weekly

The contraband policy brought a variety of reactions. Freed people of color were anticipating major positive changes in their lives as a result of freedom. Confederates were in general upset because of its implications at home and in the Confederate military camps. The status of the contraband camps was more ambiguous unitl the end of the war and the passage of the 13th Amendment. Even when Lincoln's administration said the war was not about slavery the slaves realized that they were central to the issue. Some left the plantations singly and others left with their families in tow. Life on the plantations changed as the labor pool began to evaporate. Those who remained suddenly faced extra work or perhaps more frequent beatings as a punishment because a relative had fled. The slaves wanted only freedom and an end to the barbaric life under slavery.

The freed people of color worked to secured contol over their family life, along with improvements in their economic, political lives and in areas of personal autonomy. They wanted to live and be secure in their own homes, and to own land. Others traveled to gather up their families. Freed people of color wanted to be independent financially, to get a steady paycheck for work that they chose. In addition, many dreamed of an opportunity for education for themselves and the potential for a much better life for their children. Some wanted a garden to tend and an end to the extensive work hours during slavery. Others looked forward to attending a church of their choice whenever they wanted to worship. Many desired the freedom to move about without passes as they wished, which was not possible under the restrictive rules of the ante-bellum South. Others wanted the right to vote and the opportunity to express their political views without fear of reprisal. In addition, they wanted equality under the law.

They wanted to be the masters of their own lives. In an effort to reach some of their goals the freedmen often had confrontations with federal and local governments as well as with former slave holders and local indigenous whites. The contrabands at Freedman's Village contended, just as millions of former slaves did throughout the South, to gain a right to the basic rights of life, which every family wanted.

Another protagonist at this point was the former slave holder. Many slave holders opposed the idea of Reconstruction and abhorred military rule. Planters still feared insurrection and were uncertain of what the future would bring. In an effort to allay the fears of the planters, the federal and local governments did much to subjugate and control the freedmen.

Many of the slave holders resisted and resented the involvement of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands in southern life. This Bureau, created on March 3, 1865, commonly known as the Freedman's Bureau, was directed by former Union Army General Oliver O. Howard. He believed an education, citizenship rights and self-help would make freedmen fully functional members of American society. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the bureau was in the field of education since it laid the foundation for the public school system in the South by establishing over 3000 Southern schools. Perhaps the greatest weakness of the Bureau was not realizing the depth of the racial hatred which was rampant throughout the nation and especially in the South.

Despite the good intentions of General Howard, the Freedman's Bureau fell short of its goals because of interference by the President Andrew Johnson and other factors. For example, since the Freedman's Bureau was to be funded though the money produced thorough the sale of abandoned, seized and confiscated lands, Johnson in effect nullified both the Confiscation and the Freedman's Bureau Acts. He limited the influence and effectiveness of the Agency. President Johnson was a roadblock to full freedom.

Few families in the country were unaffected by the long, arduous war. Like other slave holders throughout the South, Robert E. Lee and his family found many changes in postwar America. Some of the goals of the freedmen were at cross purposes with those of the former slave holders. Thousands of slave holders and former Confederates wanted to recreate the "old South" and resurrect the way of life before freedom came. To achieve that end some planters, perhaps as many as 10,000, went so far as to emigrate and attempt to create another life for themselves in Great Britain, Cuba, Egypt, France, Japan, Canada, Mexico, Brazil and other areas. Espousing what they called the "Lost Cause", they refused to accept the fact that the South had lost the war;they also romanticized the Old South. Despite the variety of responses, the end to slavery on the plantation required major adjustments for the slave holder.

A variety of responses occurred to the changes in federal policy towards freedmen. Former slave holders had much to lose if dramatic changes took place in the South. Perhaps the most difficult change the slave holders had to accept was the initial feeling of powerlessness. After running huge plantations and managing numerous workers, and perhaps holding political office, the prospect of a minor role in southern society was not pleasing to the planters. Some former planters faced poverty for the first time in their lives. Others wanted to reassert their authority over the former slaves in whatever ways necessary either within or outside of the law.

Others wanted to create a New South on the remains of the old. Because of the scarcity of labor over time in the Reconstruction era, some slave holders imported workers from China and Germany as well as from other countries to work their plantations. Despite their beliefs that they could run their plantations better without the use of black labor, most eventually came to accept the idea that plantation agriculture had dramatically changed. To some it was demoralizing when their workers called in the agents of the Freedman's Bureau to settle a dispute that in the past the master would have had the final word yet other planters found the labor contract system helpful to guarantee a steady source of labor.

Every Southern family wanted land and a way to earn a comfortable living. In the planter's view, freeing the slaves caused a financial strain on their lives. It meant the loss of labor and profit. The confiscation of land would take a central possession of their lives; their plantations. Emancipation meant planters encountered resistance to their supervision, limited labor supply, and potential crop failures. Many planters had long believed that the freedmen would not labor if they were not forced. Some felt the South should return to a slave system when the horror stories regarding the treatment of contrabands in government camps reached the outlying areas. The direction the planters headed was far different than the plans of the freedmen. Although some former slave owners readily accepted that a transformation was to come, others resisted that change for years.

Emancipation transformed the lives of the former slave holders in many ways. Perhaps the most difficult to accept was the subtle changes in manner and deportment which slave holders found difficult to accept. A raised eyebrow, an aggressive tone of voice or a change in deference to the "old master" angered many former planters. Some planters had considered the blacks on their plantations to be family. They were shocked when the house servants, who they considered trusted family companions left the plantation to gain their freedom. Others reluctantly accepted the changes of emancipation and hired back their former slaves and forged a workable agreement for both parties. So like the former slaves,the slave holders were not one monolithic group and had many different responses to freedom.

Contraband Going West Library of Congress It was a time of uncertainty for each of the major groups in contention. Bazil Hall, who lived on his estate in the Arlington area called Hall's Hill,was a slave holder, a former member of the old Whig party and a staunch Unionist. Hall is used as an example of the changes wrought. Mr. Hall saw a transformation in his life between the Ante-bellum years and Reconstruction. During the war he was compelled to leave his home. Hall's Hill was taken over and occupied as a Union camp during the war years due to its location on a forty foot hill. The troops cut his timber and burned fences to provide firewood to keep them warm. Farm animals were used as beasts of burden or often were slaughtered for food. The "Billy Yanks" who had eaten hardtack for months, found the crops and animals an alluring dinner. At times the Southerners were given vouchers for their confiscated property and at other times it was taken with no receipt offered.

In 1860 Bazil Hall's farm was valued at $10,000 and his personal effects were valued at $15,000. The war and Union occupation devastated both his home and land. One of his slaves attacked and killed Mrs. Hall. Their home was stripped of its furniture and eventually burned down. The world was certainly turning upside-down in the lives of the freedmen and the slave holders like Bazil Hall. By the Reconstruction years, Mr. Hall's life had been dramatically transformed.

Finally, the third group in contention included the non-slave holding white population. Some of the people in this group felt in competition with the freed people for jobs. In some areas yeoman farmers who had been self-sufficient before the war were forced into accepting credit and became caught in an endless cycle of poverty. Some of these people were affected dramatically by the huge tax burdens they faced. Many small farmers lost their farms because they could not pay their taxes or mortgages. Others lost their land or had it ruined by federal occupation or Confederate vandalism. The economic realities affected this group as well as all of the groups in contention at this time.

To reiterate, the federal government made and enforced numerous policies that affected freedmen during this time. But the freedmen were not the only people affected by the federal policy. Planters, local white farmers and merchants, free blacks and many other groups and individuals were affected by the decisions of the federal government. Chief among the decision makers were the Presidents.

Each of the presidents during the Reconstruction era had differing ideas about the way to respond to the needs of the freedmen and others as they led the country to help rebuild the South. Lincoln had strong anti-slavery beliefs and his principles generally guided his movements very slowly in direction of freedom and fair treatment for the free blacks. Johnson, a racist and a political opportunist, and worked for a speedy reconciliation for the South back into the Union. Grant, whose administration was riddled with scandal, followed Johnson in office and reflected the waning interest in Reconstruction issues. And Rutherford B. Hayes arranged for an end to Reconstruction during his hotly contested tenure in the White House, . By the late 1870's the President and Northerners had put Reconstruction far from their minds. But over fifteen years earlier, one of our presidents tried to improve the lives of the slaves and freedmen.

Our sixteenth president, Abraham Lincoln was the most progressive of all the presidents of this era. Lincoln had strong beliefs regarding the immorality of holding people in bondage. This astute politician and careful judge of public opinion, made policies with the help of Congress which had repercussions throughout the South. He wanted to end slavery but endorsed a limited policy as long as it headed in the direction he wished.

The urgency of the war determined the federal policy during this administration. We can see his view of the goal he had in mind for the country in the following quotation:

"So I say in relation to the principle that all men are created equal,

let it be as nearly reached as we can."

On March 6, 1862, Lincoln sent a message to Congress related to gradual, compensated emancipation. Although not always recognized as such, it was, at the time, a rather revolutionary proposal. One of Lincoln's first anti-slavery presidential documents, he believed this provided a way to encourage an end to slavery both in the border and the Confederate states. But he also understood that he must not move too quickly or he would alienate the loyal border states who still held people in bondage. In addition, by offering compensation to the slave owners, he would mollify them somewhat. One federal decision which dramatically affected the Arlington area was the preliminary emancipation in the District of Columbia.

Abolitionists had lobbied long and hard for an end to the peculiar institution in the capital city. They felt that the sight of slave pens near the Capitol was an outrage. After extended deliberation on how emancipation in the District would affect the outcome of the war, Lincoln made his decision. On April 16, 1862, he signed a bill which emancipated slaves in the District of Columbia. This provided still another step toward full emancipation. This program set aside money to compensate the D.C. slave holders, both black and white, who were able to meet several qualifications. Another part of this bill encouraged colonization in Liberia, Haiti and in other areas. Some of the contrabands at Freedman's Village took part in a colonization scheme to Ile au Vache, meaning "Cow Island" an island in Haiti, which failed.

At the outbreak of war, the federal government had refused to accept black soldiers. Lincoln wanted to wait until he felt the time was right for blacks in the military. Instead the contrabands were put to work for the government as civilians. Many of the black employees carried out the most unwanted jobs in camp such as burying the dead or laboring in construction projects. But, whether they dug ditches or created a camp stew, all of the work that was carried out helped advance Lincoln's goal of winning the war and preserving the Union. Later the freed men of color had an opportunity to show that they could do more than hard labor. Some freed people of color began to train and continually volunteered to serve despite the lack of government policy regarding freedmen serving in the military. So the federal government initially put limitations on the former slaves as far as military service was concerned.

On July 17, 1862, Congress finally approved the Militia Act giving President Lincoln the authority to allow blacks to enlist for any appropriate naval or military service and for which they were competent. This second Confiscation Act freed the slaves in the states in rebellion . It also stated that military personnel were not to determine the slave or free status of slaves. This law also empowered the President to employ persons of African descent in any way he saw fit to put down the rebellion. It also provided for the sale and seizure of property belonging to disloyal citizens. There was stronger support to mobilize the blacks at this time.

Insignia for the United States Colored Troops Ý

Most of those who enlisted in the United States Colored troops were former slaves who expected to gain freedom for their families as a result of their service. The presence of black troops created problems for the planters. The United States Colored Troops influenced both slave and free workers to stand up for their rights. The freed people of color made many contributions to the war effort and afterwards both as civilians and through military service. The success of the United States Colored Troops helped advance Northern acceptance of the idea of blacks serving in the military gain wider acceptance from the general public.Over 185,000 freedmen served in the military during the Civil War and of those almost 40,000 freed people of color gave their lives in the pursuit of freedom.

This decision to use black troops was initially slow and was met with a mixed and vocal public response. Even many racists approved military service for blacks. Some felt black troops should join the Union forces since they could catch a rebel bullet as well as a white man. Others thought that it was high time to allow the contrabands a chance to prove their loyalty to the Union cause and fight against their former masters. Some argued that the freedmen who lived in the Southern climate would be better able than Northern white soldiers to fight in that environment. Yet others feared that chaos and insurrection would result from the arming of the freedmen. Many of the slave holders were aware that the decision to employ black troops meant an economic loss since they considered slaves their property. Other Southern military commanders were concerned that they would lose many potential military laborers as a result of this decision. Towards the end of the war, even Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, advocated the use of blacks in the Southern military, however his policy was never put into action. There was a broad range of reasons why people felt the way they did regarding the use black troops.

The first few years of the employment of blacks troops was considered experimental even though blacks had served during the Revolution as part of the small military establishment. The soldiers and sailors who served with the United States Colored Troops had to prove themselves once again before black officers would be appointed. Black Union troops, which were known as the United States Colored Troops, served in segregated units led by carefully trained and selected white officers. This policy of segregation as well as the hesitance to use black officers was a political decision and an effort on the part of the government to lessen concerns of the Northerners regarding arming black Americans. Lincoln believed that selecting white officers for officers of black troops would send a clear message that whites were still in command. Even some of the liberal abolitionists thought this was a wise policy. Despite the inequity that we see in the federal policy towards black troops, the fact that the freedmen fought in the Civil War meant that they might be rewarded in the reconstructed America with equality or at least a better life.

On September 22, 1862 the preliminary Emancipation was announced. It stated that on January 1, 1863 all of the slaves in rebellion would be declared free and it also encouraged colonization projects in other countries. Towards the close of that year the war had broadened from fight to preserve the union to a fight for freedom for slaves. This decision resulted in massive numbers of slaves fleeing to military camps such as those surrounding the Washington D.C. area. A large number of freed slaves served in the military first as support and later as members of the United States Colored Troops. In the DC. area the trickle of slaves became a flood and the military had to protect and provide the basic necessities of life for the freedmen. The federal government encouraged freed civilians to work as farm laborers. To accomplish this end, the federal government seized plantations such as the Arlington Estate, and used the freedmen to work them. In most cases the governmental representative also settled disputes between the planter and the freedmen.

Once the government decided to pass the preliminary Emancipation it was evident that it would need to organize both the contraband laborers and their families Later on July 30, 1863, Lincoln pledged his support for all of his troops; both black and white. He assured them that they would be given equal protection if captured by the Confederates. As part of this decision came a statement that the U.S. government would retaliate if black soldiers are re-enslaved. Continued progress came on June 15, 1864 when Congress equalized the pay for black and white soldiers which had been an ongoing problem.

On January 16, 1865, General Sherman issued Special Field Order # 15 which set aside property confiscated by the Union Army for the settlement of the freed people of color. This order had the effect of raising the expectations of the freed people that the government would help provide them with land as a head start in their new lives. But by Reconstrucion's end we see very few black property owners.

Another step in the direction of freedom was the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation signed by Lincoln. The Emancipation Proclamation did not free all of the slaves. It freed the slaves in areas not under Union control. All of the slaves in the border states remained in bondage. Some slaves in Union-occupied Tennessee as well as others in Virginia and southern Louisiana which were under control of the federal armies were not affected. Despite these exceptions, the Emancipation Proclamation was a promise of freedom to over three million slaves.

Because of concerns about the constitutionality of the Emancipation Proclamation it was more of a promise of freedom than freedom itself. In effect slaves first were changed into contrabands and later considered freedmen. Most of the slave holders felt Lincoln had gone too far. Others, such as the radical abolitionists criticized the President because they believed his actions fell short since many humans still remained in bondage. Again we see Lincoln's cautious move in the direction of freedom for freedmen. But despite the mixed reviews of the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation it had the effect of changing the character of the war. The war was no longer a fight solely to preserve the Union but rather a war that would end the institution of slavery.

Freed slaves were in general jubilant on hearing the decision. Some freedmen volunteered to serve in the navy and army since one provision of the Proclamation assured enlistment of black men into the Union army and navy. The thought of working outside the control of an owner, building a home and educating the children were primary goals for many. Others wanted the freedom of traveling to find for long-lost relatives in order to reunite the family. Still others wanted to serve their country and help in the process of destroying the institution of slavery by fighting for their country. So to former slaves freedom meant different things. Lincoln realized that if the North did not win the war there would be no celebration of freedom for the slaves.

Some slaves were freed with the advancing federal armies and came to the District of Columbia. Later when federal policy allowed recruitment and encouraged impressment of black troops, many members of the United States Colored Troops served in the area and received their mustering out papers in this Northern Virginia area. Others came to the area for work on the many government and military installations. So for many reasons there was a growing number of freed people of color in Washington and in the contraband camps of the area.

Even as the contraband population steadily grew, the demand for labor grew at a higher rate in the Washington D.C area.. The Quartermaster's Department provided work for many freedmen however many of the freedpeople initially did not receive pay. The federal government decided to have the freedmen serve as forced field laborers on Government Farms. The Government Farms was a huge operation on lands confiscated by the federal government across the Potomac River in Arlingon Virginia. To the freedmen who had just left the plantation, the thought of being forced into field labor on the Government Farms was abhorrent. Many refused to sign labor contracts or return to plantation agriculture. The government forced many freedmen including children into apprenticeships and compelled them to sign labor contracts which sometimes forced them to labor away from their families. Later a sharecropping system developed which granted the freedom a bit more control over his personal life but little in the way of opportunities for economic or personal advancement.

Many of the Radical Republicans felt Lincoln was not quite in step with them and their agenda for the freedmen. However Lincoln was far more progressive than most of the Northerners and tried to keep in mind public opinion as he made his decisions. For example he timed his major policy decisions to coincide with major Union victories. Despite the constraints under which Lincoln operated, he made surprising strides in the direction of freedom.

Even Abraham Lincoln who was the most advanced of the Reconstruction presidents on most issues related to race, set policies which hampered the progress of the slaves and later freedmen. Lincoln was clear in his concern for the well-being of the freed people of color. However, he sometimes placed limitations on who would benefit from a policy that he endorsed. For example he was slow to consider suffrage for the former slaves, endoring it only for those freedmen who were well educated or those who had served with the military. He really only considered it late in the war.

At an earlier time he was less concerned with the living conditions or new initiatives to ensure the future of the freedmen, but only made decisions that could directly result in attaining his war aims. The first Confiscation Act stated that slaves and property held by the Confederates was subject to confiscation. As a result the slaves were not freed but still considered property. The freed people of color got a "new master" which was the federal government. Lincoln hoped for fair treatment for the freedmen but since Lincoln was assassinated shortly after war's end, he never had a chance to fully implement his post-war Reconstruction policies. Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's vice-president from Tennessee took office following his assassination.

Johnson, a racist and political opportunist, followed in Executive Office after Lincoln's assassination and curried favor with the planters. Although he warned the planters that they would pay for their secession from the union, he in fact made amends with them by granting pardons to most white Southerners. He also pushed for the speedy return of each of the Confederate states back into the Union. Under Johnson (1865-1867) Presidential Reconstruction was doomed to failure. Blacks were left out of the political process altogether. In effect, the white ruling elite returned to power and was able to pass Black codes which severely limited the legal rights and economic opportunities of the ex-slaves. As a result, many freedmen were forced back onto plantations for work.

The possibility of blacks gaining political power during President Johnson's administration caused a rise in terrorist groups. Paramilitary groups such as the Ku Klux Klan used violent techniques to keep the freed people of color from enjoying any measure of equality in social, economic or political rights. Johnson cared little for the welfare or the progress of the freed people. By the opening of Congress for its thirtieth session in December, 1865, "most Republicans believed that the President has precluded any alteration of the structure of southern society by his Reconstruction policy."

Justice for the freed people was hard to find at this time. Black codes were reinstated at this time by local whites who feared the economic and political gains of the freedmen. The freedmen also did not have control over their own work for under both Lincoln and Johnson's labor policies. Labor contracts were encouraged. Children were forced into apprenticeships. The freedmen were pressed into service to work on the plantations under the gang systems on the plantations. Although the freedmen were paid for their work, many people were angry that their new found freedom presented such limited choices. Sharecropping emerged as the primary work available to most former slaves. Johnson's reconstructed South more resembled a resurrected one.

Several other significant pieces of legislation were passed towards the end of the war. On March 3, 1865 Congress liberated the wives and children of the men serving in the United States Colored Troops. That same date marked the date of the creation of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands an agency responsible for providing relief and assistance to former slaves, white refugees and charged with the administration of abandoned lands. Private individuals and groups like the American Freedman's Inquiry Commission had lobbied long and hard for a governmental agency to aid the freedmen. One of the responsibilities of this new bureau, popularly known as the Freedmen's Bureau, was to provide food, fuel, and clothing to needy white refugees and freedmen. It also would provide school buildings and rations for teachers so that they could carry out their work of instructing both the children and adults who flocked to the classroom. In addition it was charged with regulating the freedmen's labor.

Congress broke with Johnson over the issues of the Freedman's Bureau and the Civil Rights Bill in 1866 then took control in 1867. According to Foner, Reconstruction policy was actually established by Congress beginning in 1867. Others felt that the greatest opportunity to reconstruct the South was with the Grant administration. Ulysses S. Grant, former general for the North, was president at a time when the interest of the nation in Reconstruction was lessening. But instead of taking a stand and trying to continue the limited progress that was made during Reconstruction, he chose to stand idly by. Grant saw his role as mainly a ceremonial one. He did not want to initiate policies but instead chose to rubber-stamp Congressional initiatives. He refused to act even when he saw intimidation and denial of the right to vote and civil rights. Later massive white supremacy laws crop up in the southern states. These laws allowed for the reinstatement of white rule throughout much of the South. Even though moderate progress had been made in earlier administrations through the passage of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth, they began to lose their significance during his terms of office as rights went unprotected. During his stay in the Executive office, Americans focused on the many scandals that racked his administration.

Another policy was set forth with the passage of the Civil Rights Act in April, 1866, which gave Blacks the rights to citizens. Also the Reconstruction Act which was passed on March 2, 1867. This Act divided the South into five military districts; and placed them under martial law. General J. M. Scholfield was the Commander in Virginia which was designated as Military District #1. In order to rejoin the union, each state was required to ratify the fourteenth amendment which gave blacks broadened freedom including the right to vote for Negro men.

And Rutherford B. Hayes entered the Presidential scene in 1876 and brought Reconstruction to an end. From the Southern point of view the South was "redeemed". As soon as military troops were removed many of the Southern states returned to white Democratic rule. The Supreme Court weakened the government's power to offer protection against infringements of civil rights. But President Hayes was not the only person or group to advocate and end of Reconstruction. Many Northerners had been tiring of the topics surrounding the rebuilding of the south and related freedmen's issues. Many of the most vocal abolitionists and Radical Republicans had fought for years to end slavery were now silent. Some Republican leaders had died, and others were ready to move on to new issues. There was a lack of unity in the platform and policies of the Republican Party. So by 1877 we see an end to the formal Reconstruction of the South.

The federal government was at least partly to blame for the failure of Reconstruction in the South to offer permanent improvements to the lives of the freedmen . To get a glimpse of what it was like to be a contraband or freed person of color one can concentrate on Freedman's Village, located on Arlington Heights.

Arlington Heights, Virginia, located near the nation's capitol, was a critical area for Union defense during the Civil War. When Virginia seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy, it meant that the Union forces faced a potential attack from south of the Potomac River. As the nation's capital, Washington D.C. was like the eye of a storm during the war. If the Confederates gained control of Northern Virginia, they could fire artillery on the White House and on other governmental buildings. On May 24 and 25 1861, federal troops invaded Virginia and began to secure the area for the Union including the defense of bridgeheads at the Long and Aqueduct bridges. Arlington was a key part of that Union defense of Washington.

In addition to securing the bridges, Arlington County was home base to part of a circle of forts in Maryland and Virginia, which was built to defend Washington D. C. The forts in Arlington included: Ethan Allen, C.F. Smith, Strong, Morton, Woodbury, Cass, Craig, Richardson, Reynolds, Gareshe, Barnard, Berry, Scott, Runyon, Albany, Craig, McPherson, Tillinghast, Haggerty, Jackson, Bennett, and Fort Whipple now renamed Fort Myer. Because of this dramatic military presence and as a result of its location so near the nation's capital, Arlington citizens, both black and white, had an important role to play in Reconstruction.

When thousands of former slaves came to Washington D.C. for protection and support with the advance of the Union Army and after the announcement of emancipation in the District of Columbia, camps were established in the District of Columbia. Disease and overpopulation soon became common. Conditions in the D.C. camps became overcrowded because of massive population increases and a high death rate, efforts were made to relocate the freedmen and consolidate existing camps into a larger tract of land across the Potomac River: the Arlington Estate. It was thought that the clean country air would have a positive effect on the freedmen. Similar efforts to reduce the population of freedmen congregating in the cities would take place throughout the South during Reconstruction. Even though the death rate was lower in Arlington than in the District camps, the poor living conditions and horrible treatment provided a life in Freedman's Village which was little more than slavery. And at the root of the living conditions was the decisions made at the highest levels in the government.

Tens of thousands of soldiers served in the Northern Virginia area during the Civil War. Not only were the soldiers put to work building forts, batteries, stockades, earthworks and trenches but they also drilled and prepared for war. The presence of Union troops in the area created the need for additional workers. Some freed people of color, mainly women and children, served as cooks and servants to officers. Spies, teamsters, street cleaners, lumberjacks, horsemen, shoemakers, laundresses, and other laborers were also in demand within the military camps. Contrabands filled this need for additional workers. Through the intervention of the federal government , some of the contrabands found their way to Freedman's Village, a camp for freed slaves which was located on the Arlington Estate.

At this time period the Arlington Estate, consisting of over 1000 acres, was owned by Mary Randolph Custis-Lee wife of Robert E. Lee, Confederate Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia. was her husband. The federal government occupied the Estate without authorization. The Army took over the Arlington House and its surrounding lands on the Arlington Estate for use by the Union and eventually bought the Arlington Estate for a small fee. On June seventh, 1862, over a year after the invasion into Virginia, Congress passed the Direct Tax Act. This legislation enforced the Direct Tax Act of 1861 which called for the direct assessment of taxes on southern property. This meant that the property owners themselves had to come to pay their taxes in person. The law empowered the federal government to seize, sell, or lease land from those in rebellion who failed to pay their taxes. To see the law in action we will look at what occurred on the Arlington Estate.

When Mary Randolph Custis-Lee received notice about the Direct tax she decided to send a relative to pay the tax in her place. The direct tax, was passed by an act of Congress was also known as the Insurrectionary tax and was used to help fund the Army of Occupation. A relative of Mary Custis Lee agreed to go to pay $92.08 which was the amount of the Direct tax due for Arlington Estate. The local commissioner of taxation refused to accept the tax payment since Mrs. Lee did not appear in person to pay the levy. Consequently the land was put on the auction block for sale and sold to the highest bidder. The federal government bought the Arlington House and surrounding property later, in 1864, for $26,800.

Initially the government used the land for military purposes. By 1863 the federal government opened Freedman's Village a camp for contrabands there. The acreage surrounding the Arlington House was also used for a Government Farm which was cultivated by the freedmen. As the battles raged on and the death toll increased, Arlington also was pressed into service as a cemetery; Arlington National Cemetery was dedicated in 1864.

Two months later, in May of 1865, the government required freedmen to be employed and to provide for their own food. Blacks were required to sign labor contracts in some cases with their former masters. Some laws were passed which prohibited blacks from entering the cities and would force them off plantations if they did not work.

To see the effects of that legislation we visit Freedman's Village. In 1866 an attempt was made by the federal government to get rid of some of the freed people who were in Freedman's Village. Unnecessary severity was used in carrying out the order which forced all unemployed freed people to leave the village . Some refused to sign labor contracts to go to work on plantations and as a result were dispossessed of their homes. It appears that more care should have been taken in executing the order. Some families were required to leave even though they had family members out working at the time of the removal. Other individuals were forced to pull down their own homes and move the materials elsewhere. Loss and damage resulted in this decision. In addition to the expense of rebuilding the house they now had to pay ground rent. In at least one case a woman was forced to remain out in the cold all night.

The thirteenth amendment, passed on December 18, 1865, eliminated slavery throughout the United States or in any place under its jurisdiction. In addition it provided Congress with the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. There was a need for this amendment since slave owners not only held people in bondage but also would raid camps like the one at Freedman's Village to forcibly acquire laborers for the plantation.

Next the Fourteenth Amendment was passed by Congress in 1866 which gave black men the right to vote. This legislation guaranteed equal protection without regard to race. Another part of the amendment stated that if the vote was denied to black men, then a state's representation in Congress would be reduced proportionately. Despite the fact that there were thousands of cases of improper conduct at the ballot box particularly as it applied to black voters, this section of the amendment was never enforced. The next section of this amendment stated that the Union debt shall not be questioned, while the Confederate debt was declared to be null and void and it forbade the states to redeem it. President Johnson discouraged its passage, but in the end Congress won. Congress demanded the ratification of the fourteenth Amendment by each Southern state to be a condition for re-admission into Congress.

The final amendment enacted during this time period was the fifteenth Amendment. This amendment was passed when Congress became concerned about the violence in the South. Instead of directly taking action to stabilize these conditions the government passed another Constitutional Amendment to solve the problem. The amendment had two sections. The first section granted the right to vote shall not be denied to adult males. The second section states that Congress has the power to enforce this article with appropriate legislation. GOP legislaors see giving the black man the vote as a way to protect hem and hlep the Republican party at the same time.

The amendments to the Constitutional Amendments activated important ideals but Congress were negligent in it's enforcement. Despite the federal presence in major Southern cities, inadequate manpower was used to enforce the laws and see that the constitutional amendments were followed.

There was a need for legislation regarding discrimination in public transportation. Sojourner Truth, a counselor at Freedman's Village pointed out the unfair treatment on the street car lines in 1864. Only one car on each track was reserved for the freed people of color. Many were also forced to stand. She complained to the president of the street railroad who eventually agreed to remove the Jim Crow car and allow black and white passengers to ride together. Each time she traveled to the city and was denied a ride, she spoke out and raised the issue of discrimination. She was an active agent it attempting to change an unfair system. However the rule was not enforced.

It was not until over ten years later in 1875, that the Civil Rights Act, first proposed by Charles Summer to outlaw discrimination in public accommodation and transportation throughout the United States was enacted. Unfortunately, not long afterward, in 1883, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the Civil Rights Act and decided that it was unconstitutional. This reflects the decline in interest in Reconstruction in the Judiciary Branch of government.

During the Civil War and Reconstruction former slaves faced many challenges. Some of the problems included; prejudice, forced labor contracts, violence, dispossession of lands, impressment of troops, life under military rule, limitations on work, sharecropping, discrimination and treatment as second class citizens. In addition, homelessness, poverty, ignorance and illiteracy along with the hindrance of wavering governmental support kept freedmen from enjoying full equal opportunity. Because of its location near the nation's capital, the experience of the freedmen was somewhat unique, yet by and large, the challenges faced by the residents of Freedman's Village reflect the challenges faced throughout the South. Because this camp was so close to the nation's capital and because it had so many visitors it was considered to be a model camp. If what we see in freedman's village is model behavior it is frightening to consider what life was like in more remote contraband camps.

Even the freed black population that attempted to live independently and outside of government control were the subject to abuse. One self-supporting colony of freed blacks had clustered their homes together near the Arlington House. A school was being organized by this self-supporting colony. Lieutenant Colonel Lathrop, stationed nearby, complained that the Negroes ought to be removed from the area because they detracted from the appearance of the Estate which the government planned to sell to their best advantage. The people who were in living in that existing black settlement were forced to move by the federal government to an area which was located just in back of the contraband camp, Freedman's Village.

General De Rusy gave them permission to build in an area just behind Freedman's Village in October 1863. About fifteen or twenty houses were built where between sixty and one hundred people resided. Colonel Lannatt, an Army officer believed that this group of freed people of color were stealing demanded that they be moved further from the camp. Another removal was approved again by the federal government. The people were advised to remove their property as they might all be arrested and put into the contraband camp. The villagers were forced out of their homes, marched into Washington under guard where they were forced to remain out of doors. One or two of those who took part of this forced removal from their homes died as a consequence of the exposure.

Additional testimony on this incident came from the Provost Marshal of the 1st Massachusetts Heavy Artillery which was stationed nearby Freedman's Village. He reported that the freedmen in this area had saved money and become self sufficient. They bought the materials for small homes. At all costs they desired to remain independent and stay out of the contraband camp. In addition to the black population, a white woman who lived in the camp was also removed. This was a self-supporting colony when the soldiers cleaned it out. The male residents of the village returned from their work to find their families gone with no explanation. The federal government in carrying out these orders showed their disdain for the villagers and their desire for their removal. It is ironic to note that the initial reason for the withdrawal was because the shanties might lower the value of the Arlington House, when in fact the government itself was the highest bidder. So even when freedmen tried to remain independent, built their own homes, and worked regularly, they were faced with many roadblocks including the wavering policies of the federal government itself.

One of the challenges that faced the government was providing adequate housing for the increasing village population. Thousands of slaves many from Maryland and Virginia found their way to the Northern Virginia area. During the war large numbers of contrabands came North on boats and came to Freedman's Village in need of a place to stay. With massive numbers of contrabands coming in to camp, housing was needed. For example in late May, 1864, a request was made by the Village superintendent for worn Sibley tents to shelter the contrabands until adequate quarters could be erected for their use. Sibley tents were popular with the Union troops during the first two years of the war and since they were replaced with other more portable tents the government had many on hand. The Sibley tents provided temporary shelter for the contrabands until houses could be built.

Working out an effective labor system was another challenge facing not only the villagers but also the government and local plantation owners. Some freed people of color had marketable skills but were not free to practice their trades. Henry Cook , an experienced shoemaker came to the village in Arlington in May of 1863. Although he was an experienced shoe mender who wanted to continue to practice his trade, he was pressured to work in the field by Mr. Simpson a farm overseer and Phillip Fowler, an assistant to the director of the government farms.

Despite threats, the shoemaker refused to work on the Government Farm. Mr. Cook had bought his own tools and wanted to earn his living independently by repairing the shoes of the soldiers who were stationed nearby. As a result of Cook's refusal to work in the fields, the overseer swore and verbally assaulted the shoemaker and finally physically beat him. As a result of the severe beating the shoemaker was confined to his bed for two weeks. When interviewed about the incident the shoemaker said "Well if I could have may 'rathers,' that is, if I could have my old master I would rather go back." It came as no surprise that many freedmen refused to work under Simpson.

The federal government agent in charge of the village hired Simpson to help with labor problems. Simpson, a former slave driver in Maryland, used the freedmen both for working on the Government Farms and hired them for his own work as well. Fowler also supervised slaves on plantations in Maryland prior to the war. So, at least some of the personnel hired by the federal government came directly from plantation managment and were unsympathetic to the freedmen. Fowler told the shoemaker that it did not matter to him that he knew how to mend shoes but rather he must work as a field hand on the government farm. Simpson needed field laborers, not shoemakers.

It reflects the attitudes of the federal government toward freed slaves when they hired former plantation overseers, like Simpson, to manage the work on the Government Farms. And it also shows the abuse encountered by the villagers. It was not only the Confederates that the freedmen feared. When some villagers would rather face life under the master's rule rather than life in the contraband camp, we can see that dramatic abuses took place in camps such as Freedman's Village.

Some of the area freedmen worked on Washington city streets under the direction of overseers furnished by the Mayor for forty cents per day. Others were employed as laborers in local hospitals such as Abbott Hospital in Freedman's Village and were also paid at the same rate of forty cents per day. Some freedmen hired as scavengers were paid eighty cents per day since they toiled a double shift. Many contrabands, who worked as teamsters and laborers, were paid a salary of $25.00 per month by the Quartermaster and Commissary departments . From these salaries a five dollar fee was deducted for funding the care of the contrabands.

A portion of the salary of the working freedmen was set aside in a Contraband fund designed to administer to the needs of the contrabands.This fund was set up to help contrabands who were young, sick or otherwise could not provide for themselves. For example some of the money from this fund provided clothing for those contrabands in need.* Rather than allocate money from the budget to care for the freedmen, the federal government decided to have the freedmen themselves provide for the dependent contrabands.

Many of the contrabands were not paid for their work or received only food and lodging. Even some of the disabled people tried to earn their keep. For example, Benjamin Wade, a disabled veteran of the United States Colored Troops, regularly sought out work in Washington, in June of 1867, but was not hired. He had previously served as a nurse in the Old Folks Home in Freedman's Village. The village superintendent agreed that Wade and his wife could remain in a home in the village until the next pension installment arrived. They were also reminded that they must each cheerfully comply with all the village rules and must do whatever work they were able to do in return for their rations and quarters.

Another example of the extraordinary efforts of the common people to remain independent is evidenced in a letter from Amelia Stewart to General O. O. Howard on June 29, 1867. Mrs. Steward , an old woman had been steadily working since she was freed. She bought her husband a house in which to live since he was disabled for life. All she asked was that he receive rations so that her earnings could buy the necessities of life such as clothing. After careful investigation as to the veracity of the woman's story, the government determined that the man was entirely unable to support himself and that rations could be issued to him. It was also noted that these two older freed people of color could be admitted to the "Home for the Aged and Infirm" at Freedman's Village if they wished.

Some found life in the contraband camps to be frustrating and difficult. Patcy Scott, a pregnant newcomer was treated horribly by Mr. Nichols, the minister who was also the superintendent of Freedman's Village. She told him that he was driving her about like a dog and that was more than her old master would do. The minister struck Patcy in the back with a tin kettle and a bake oven. As a result of the incident Patcy Scott miscarried.(2785A) Many villagers came forward to corroborate this inhumane treatment by Mr. Nichols despite his influence and possible repurcussions.

In another incident a Miss Lucy Ellen Johnson a newcomer alleged maltreatment by Mr. Nichols. She and her husband had a history of steady employment and independence as they lived in a small shanty by the river near the Long Bridge. She moved to the village for protection after an attack by Northern soldiers. During her first week in Freedman's Village she was very ill and could not work. As a result Nichols refused to issue food or clothing to her. An argument ensued and Nichols along with members of the Army, pushed, kicked and seized the woman by the throat, put a rope round her two thumbs and suspended her weight over a tree limb by her thumbs. In addition the soldiers kicked, choked her, and stuffed her mouth with dirty wool. She was held in this manner for nearly half and hour and was at the same time advised to leave the camp and stay out of Nichols' sight.

An investigation into this barbaric incident and into Mr. Nichols' behavior turned up testimony by more than thirty people willing to speak out regarding the treatment of Miss Johnson and other freed people both at Camp Barker (where some of the villagers came from ) and also Freedman's Village. The freed people of color showed remarkable courage when they voluntarily spoke out despite the fact that personal repercussions might involve them as a result. The villagers were learning the importance of speaking out and taking a stand on issues and that there was power in community solidarity. Miss Johnson's was one example of the many cases of barbaric treatment in Freedman's Village by an officer of the federal government..

Nichols also tried to censor what the villagers told visitors. In one of his sermons he warned the villagers that they would have strangers, visitors and enemies who would ask many questions. Nichols advised them to control their lips. So not only did Nichols inflict physical pain but he also felt freedom of speech did not apply to freed people of color.

But the villagers were not the only ones who faced challenges. Problems sometimes occured related to unauthorized peddling and pilfering. In December of 1864, Captain J. M. Brown, Assistant Quartermaster at Freedman's Village instructed the guard to arrest any peddlers who appeared in the village selling or buying any clothes or rags from the contrabands. In addition he advised the guard to prevent the contrabands who left the camp from taking along government property without written permission of the Superintendent. Guards were cautioned to be on the lookout for stoves, pipes, bed ticks, and bedsteads.

Life in Freeman's Village was life under military rule. This meant giving up some independence for the protection of the military. Residents needed passes to go into the city of Washington. Friends from other areas had to obtain permission from the guard to come for a visit. At certain times members of the United States Colored Troops needed authorization before the guard would allow them to attend church services in the Village. Many of the residents of the village resented the external controls of military rule. It would come as no surprise to know that many people would prefer to remain independent rather than come into the village and lose whatever degree of authority they had over their lives. In addition to problems of military rule there were practical problems relating to health care.

There were problems in keeping the Home for the Aged heated properly. In a report dated December 29, 1866, S.U. Clark asserts that there was insufficient heating for those confined to the Old Folks Home. Most of the existing stoves were broken and worthless. The inmates of the Home were huddled over the fires yet none of the rooms were acceptably warm. In consequence of the inadequate condition, ten new stoves were requisitioned. But even if those living in the Home were warm they still needed adequate care which was not always available.

In addition there were often challenges related to the living conditions in the village. There was a transient quality to the village. Despite the fact that the freedmen were promised land, few received any from the government. The freedmen who arrived in Washington D. C. were held there in a depot until such time as they could be transported to the camps in Virginia including the Arlington Estate of Freedman's Village. There was also a steady stream of contrabands coming into camp.

Hospitals were also constructed for the care of the villagers who were ill.

At least two hospitals were established in the village to provide medical care to the sick villagers. Dr. C. B. Webster, employed in the village hospital as a doctor, decried the poor conditions and suffering of the freedmen. Many of the residents of the village were transferred from Camp Barker in D.C. It was a raw, winter day when the contrabands traveled from Camp Barker to Arlington Heights. As a result of moving them in the wintertime, some caught cold in the moving process. Some died shortly after their arrival. In addition they were met with inadequate accommodations and supplies in the new location, Freedman's Village.

Many of the people who were sick had no beds or blankets. Betty Johnston and her three brothers had one blanket and one bed for all. One tent was shared by six men and two unmarried women who had neither beds nor blankets. Some of those women were soon to be confined in childbirth. Dr.Webster also reported that musty, used straw that was sent over to use in the hospital from Camp Barker was filthy and bred camp measles. Many of the patients had no wood to heat their tents. In addition the doctor believed that the hospital was never fully given over into the charge of the Surgeon.

The doctor charged that Mr. Nichols, Superintendent of Freedman's Village was using the hospital as a "window dressing" to show visitors during the dedication tour. However when asked about the lack of patients, Mr. Nichols replied that none were sick. The doctor contradicted Nichols when he reported that at least a dozen people were sick at the time and were kept in sub-standard conditions. On the one hand there was a hospital in the Village, but on the other hand it was not initially put to use to care for the freedmen. Nichols, a federal government agent, failed to provide adequately for the medical care of the villagers.

Although there was a hospital in Freedman's Village, conditions there were not always good. A woman who was seriously ill had only a blanket to keep her warm. A very old man,Uncle Charles, died on the floor . Many were housed in old tents. Mr. Nichols, in charge of the camp initially, was hesitant to actually use the hospital. Doctor felt that many were ill and were not treated properly in the hospital. Also, although it was winter, some patients had no wood with which to heat their tents or cabins. One woman, Violet Barber, who was pregnant, had neither a bed nor a blanket and some of the tents accommodated unrelated unmarried men and women in the same tent.

The villagers faced challenges on a daily basis. They showed extraordinary courage in trying to improve their lives by standing up to authorities. The villagers filled petitions, spoke at public meetings and took other actions for the purpose of improving their lives and the lives of their neighbors in Freedman's Village. Several villagers pooled their resources and bought land to farm. Through their solidarity and joint efforts they were able to improve their lives by standing up to authorities, they were able to survive the harsh living conditions in the village. Some of the institution which assisted the freedmen in this process were the schools, churches and the political affairs of the community.

Despite the lack of advancement in many areas during Reconstruction, progress took place in several institutions; the school, church and political activity. The freed people tried to use these institutions to help them attain their wishes for social economic, civil and political equality. These institutions provided the basics to help in the transition from slavery to freedom.

When freedom came, the former slaves anticipated many changes, including the right to be educated. Many freedmen thought that education would be like Aladdin's Lamp, a magical tool which would open many doors. Other freed people had more basic desires and simply wanted to learn so they could read the Bible, write a letter, or sign their full name to a contract instead of an "X" to represent their mark. The desire of the freed people of color for an education for themselves and their children led them to the schoolhouse door. In 1860 only 1.9 percent of the Negro population was enrolled in schools. By 1870 that figure had increased to 9.9% Later, by the year 1880, 33.8 percent of the black population attended schools. So we can see that the freedmen attended school and began to learn.The opportunity for education provided an new area of opportunity for the freedmen. High on the list for the freedmen were education, the right to vote, own land and have a comfortable family life.

Progress was made in the field of education through the joint efforts of the philanthropic and benevolent societies, and with the assistance of the federal government. "Yankee schoolmarms" followed close behind in the tracks of the Union Army and soon freedmen's schools were established throughout the South. Some member of the free black population volunteered to teach in the freedmen's schools D.C. area schools. A freedman's school in Freedman's Village was created by the Boston segment of the American Tract Society.

Education was a top priority for many freedmen. The several thousand freedmen's schools established during the Civil War and Reconstruction lowered the illiteracy rate to just short of eighty percent of the "Negro" population by 1870. The federal government, through the Freedman's Bureau and various benevolent societies, helped provide education to the freedmen. The missionary and educational work was done throughout the south. The aid given by the federal government coupled with the charitable help of the societies provided the basis of help during the war and in the early years of Reconstruction. The 1880 census revealed that the illiteracy rate had fallen to seventy percent of the "Negro" population.

The American Tract Society erected a school building in the village. Writing books and slates were donated by the society, which also supplied the teachers. The federal government through the Freedman's Bureau supplied rations and housing for the teachers. Adult freedmen who trained in the carpenters' workshop of the Industrial School, made the double desks for the scholars. The subjects studied were similar to New England school curriculum of the period where students worked on spelling, writing, reading, and mental or written arithmetic along with other subjects. Through the work of various groups working in tandem including the freedmen, government and various charitable agencies, an education was available to some.

In addition to the standard curriculum, teachers often felt that they must teach the freedmen values such as thrift, industry, cleanliness, civic responsibility, political awareness and religious topics. However, it was the study of Republican politics which most enraged the local white citizens. So it appears that in Freedman's Village the freedmen learned far more than their ABC's. At the start of Congressional Reconstruction, freedmen held office for the first time in American history. This change presented challenges including hostility from white officeholders, and lack of support from the still young Republican party.

The political meetings that were held in the church, often resulted in petitions or in committees being selected to speak with the authorities on concerns raised by the villagers. Citizens of the village were willing to speak up and open up to new ideas. Some of the issues which villagers stood up related to education for their children, need for a new church and compensation for the loss of their homes. For example when the government decided to remove all of the remaining civilians from Freedman's Village in 1887, John B. Syphax was selected to write to government officials to ask that the villagers be remunerated if they lost their homes and land. As a result of this request a survey was carried out on the land and a small financial settlement was made to about 800 people who were dispossessed by the federal government. In addition, the community worked together towards improving political and civil rights.

For example, the freedmen in the village nominated and voted into office Republican candidates. They spoke out at public meetings, testified to visiting evaluators, and spoke at freedmen conventions to express their views. They volunteered in the school to share what they knew with the students. They were not passive observers but rather active agents in trying to improve their lives and the lives of other villagers during the Reconstruction.The citizens of the village created both formal and informal networks to serve the needs of the community. According to Dr. James Horton, many people helped other people without any formal assistance from the government. Some of the ways that the citizens of the village helped others was in taking in a friend who needed bed and board, looking out for the neighborhood children, or in taking in orphans who had lost their families during the war.

Some residents also wrote letters to the editors, to government agents to express their concerns. In short, they learned to use the political process in gain political power. And insofar as the law allowed they were able to be actively involved in the political area. The freedmen learned to stand up for their rights, were trained in new job skills and perhaps most importantly learned about the power of community solidarity. An industrial school provided men with training in trades such as carpentry and the women tailoring. The residents of Freedman's Village fought for schools and a better life for their families. Some volunteered to help out in the schools and spoke out for their continued presence in the village.

Another area in which many villagers were able to gain the strength to meet the challenges of everyday life was in the solace of the village churches. The villagers founded and supported churches which included Mt. Olive and Mt. Zion Baptist and perhaps other houses of worship. They raised funds to build a new church when needed. In addition to providing for the spiritual life of the village, the churches also served as a community center, a place to hold political meetings and to socialize. The family and black churches had certainly existed before the war but changed some as a result of freedom.

Freed people of color were not pawns in the Reconstruction process. The black community was very much an active agent in shaping Reconstruction policy in Arlington and working towards racial equality. Despite the efforts of the black community, there were massive obstacles that stood in the way of social, political, civic and economic progress were not fulfilled. The failure to reach those goals was not due to the lack of effort on the part of the freedmen but rather due to the roadblocks to progress which were found at both the local and national levels.

The federal government failed to take a strong, consistent stand in the creation of federal policy to advance the standing of the freedman. Racial prejudice and wavering governmental policy were two of the reasons why the reforms of the Reconstruction in Arlington were short-lived. Only through its the institutions such as the school and the churches can we see what progress was made and the roads not taken.

Although some institutions like slavery changed, others like the community, schools and the churches emerged and strengthened. Freedman's Village was a contraband camp which became a community. Families, schools, churches, and community organizations defined that community. Despite several attempts by the federal government to close the village down, the villagers managed to remain on the land for nearly 30 years. Their effectiveness in using the political skills they had gained over the years helped them achieve some of their goals. But in the beginning years of the 1890's Freedman's Village was closed. Changes came to the former slave holders also.

By 1870 Basil Hill's property value fell to $6400.00 and his personal effect fell to just $30.00. After the war he sold off land in small parcels. The Union occupation dramatically changed life on Hall's Hill. Ironically, during Reconstruction, Basil Hall was hired by the United States Army to cut wood

along Arlington Heights. He had come down in society as a result of the war.

Because he felt strongly that his rights had been violated, he filed a claim with the Southern Claims Commission for $40,000.00 for wartime losses. His

settlement was $10,729.00. Basil Hall was just one of many slave holders in the south, but what happened to him can give us an idea of the challenges facing both the nation and in communities, like Arlington, in

reconstructing the nation.

Arlington had not fully recuperated from its occupation a full five years after Appomattox . Earthworks,trenches, and other signs of a military presence were still scattered throughout the area. In 1860, the county had 15,260 acres of land in the County in farms of which 8219 acres were improved. Just ten years later in 1870, there were only 8,095 in farmland and the improved part had decreased to 6914 acres. In 1870 the cash value of the farms was $660,875 while earlier in the Ante-bellum times of 1860, the cash value was $853,360. Arlington's economy had become poorer.

The number of farms with three or more acres dropped from 138 to 86 between 1860 and 1870. Before the war the Arlington Estate was the only County estate classified in the over 500-acre range. By 1870 there were no properties which fell into this range. The biggest decline came for small farms which had between 50 to 100 acres. In 1860 there were 40 such farms; by 1870 the farms in this range fell to just 12. Economic hard times forced citizens to put property up for sale. Land speculators bought up local mortgages. Hardest hit were the farmers who were forced off their land due to Union occupation. Some citizens never got back on an even keel financially and others never returned to the area.

To get a sense of the widespread effect of the occupation of the area we can read the Southern Claims Commission Papers. In 1862 Eliza Young was forced by General Whipple to leave her home. She claimed to be a loyal Unionist, yet was ordered out without notice. The soldiers who camped on her land destroyed the property including her home, buildings, and crops . Some black residents of the area also applied to the Commission for losses. Levi Johns, a local black resident lost a picket fence, horses, barnwood, cow, hay, trees, and land rent. Some of the claimants were asked why they voted for secession. Samuel Ball claimed that despite armed men at the polling place he voted for the Union. George Herrick suffered a common fate when his farm was stripped of everything that could be carried away. Some were left with only the clothes on their backs. So it was a time of change for the residents of the Arlington area who had all suffered through the challenges of wartime occupation.

An additional problem resulted when Confederate veterans came back to their homes to find them settled by others; especially freedmen. Also there were many newcomers to the area. They included the United States Army, the United States Colored Troops, lobbyist, gamblers, politicians, and investors and builders. The character of Arlington had changed dramtically.

Despite the unified efforts of freed people of color and the work of the Black community, freed people of color faced many roadblocks on the road to freedom and equality. Some of them were harasssment, hostility, prejudice, dispossession of land, forced removal from their homes,

arbitrary arrest, kidnapping, inhumane treatment, subordination and forced dependence on the government. Both the use of black labor and the needs of the military were constant considerations. The federal policies created which relate to the freedmen were tied closely to the military needs. In some cases the federal government used the labor of blacks on plantations as a method of social control . If they were laboring on the plantations, they could not congregate in the cities and create further difficulties. The freed people of color were treated unfairly during both slavery and freedom.

At the close of Reconstruction the freedmen had few chances to acquire their own land and become independent. In the Arlington area speculators who bought up land which was lost to the creditors and fewer farms were available for purchase. In addition there was prejudice from local whites who resented the freedmen coming up in the world. And the federal government through its forced labor contract system had helped to create a labor system which was a dead end for progress as it offered little more than slavery. Under this system, the slaves earned a share of the crops that they helped to produce. According to John David Smith this share wage system which developed during Reconstruction created a kind of limbo for the former slaves. Under this system they were not quite slave and yet less than free. The master, and local merchants who offered credit to the freedmen got paid before the freedmen themselves and seemed to profit most from the system.

Paramilitary groups terrorized and impeded the progress of former slaves who through hard work and initiative made economic gains. Physical intimidation and violence were regular tactics. Also Northerners who took

an active interest in abolition and reform work initially lost interest in Reconstruction as the years flew by. In addition the failure of the Republican Party to sustain the political progress of the freedmen also was an hindrance to permanent racial progress. Yet one of the chief roadblocks to progress was the federal government itself. According to Louis Gerteis , "Union policy amounted to benign neglect and precluded radical reconstruction in the south."

The gains of both Presidential and Congressional Reconstruction were limited and in many cases short lived. According to Eric Foner, Reconstruction is an unfinished revolution. Many of the important issues which were raised during Reconstruction are still unsettled. The failure to create consistent federal policies to help the former slaves left the freedmen somewhere in shadows between slavery and freedom. Indifference of the federal government in creating policy that would benefit the freedmen left the responsibility to the state and local jurisdictions. The local jurisdictions

were often controlled by Democratic Politicians who did not desire advancement for the freedmen and who certainly did not plan to support the idea of individual rights.And the lack of law enforcement which could have ensured racial equality was also a roadblock.

Although Arlington was part of its reform movement, the government

never actually planned to change the social situation or laboring practices of blacks. And without social and economic changes, the South would be like it was before the war. The federal government, through its inaction accepted a return to the old practices.

Even the abolitionists had little effect on actual transformation or reform . The strides they made were generally in the area of education, religious missionary work and the basic relief of suffering by providing clothes, school equipment and books, food and though volunteer work in the south. There were so many freedmen in need of help during this time period that these two groups were kept busy without engaging in serious reform work. Broad issues such as how can we elevate the freedmen in Southern society or how can we help the freedman to become economically self-sufficient gave way to more basic questions like where can this freedman get a place to sleep tonight or who can provide more clothing for him to wear. Despite the philanthropic and charitable interests of the Northern missionaries, the labor policies created by the federal government were developed without regard to those well-meaning efforts to improve the lot of the freedman.

The death toll of blacks during the Civil War and Reconstruction was high. Tens of thousands died while serving the country in the Army. In addition thousands died across the South in contraband camps such as Freedman's Village or in Confederate camps or in small Southern towns where living conditions were horrible. Although the war was over, the fighting continued. Racial feelings did not die with Appomattox. .It would be take the second battle for Civil Rights in the 1950's and 1960's to make some of the changes begun at this time permanent.

One achievement of Radical Reconstruction was political awareness and activity. Freedmen and free blacks had their first taste of political activity as they entered and sometimes led the boards and legislatures and other governmental bodies. In some cases blacks held a majority of seats. This early effort at political reform gave the United States a political past to recreate during the Civil Rights era of this century.

Also in the field of education there was definite progress. The federal government, through the Freedman's Bureau and various benevolent societies, helped provide education to the freedmen throughout much of the South. The teachers in several thousand freedmen's schools established during the Civil War and Reconstruction, helped to lower the illiteracy rate. The aid given by the federal government coupled with the charitable help of the societies provided a rudimentary education during the war and in the early years of Reconstruction. The 1880 census revealed that the illiteracy rate had fallen to seventy percent of the "Negro" population. There was a steady increase in the number of black citizens who were able to read and write as time passed into the twentieth century.

At the top of the federal government's agenda was securing its war aims. The federal government stepped in to maintain social control and succeeded in having a dramatic influence on the lives of the freedmen. To the freed people of color, emancipation did not hold out all the freedoms they wanted. Even wartime experiments such as Freedman's Village, located near the nation's capitol showed only too well the poor results of federal policy towards freed people of color. In the end, the freed people of color fared little better in Arlington than in other locations. The poor treatment and resulting high death rate faced by the contrabands in the village indicated the prejudice and unequal treatment that they received in Freedman's Village. Southern intransigence and the failure of federal policy to create a just Reconstruction made life in Freedman's Village, little more than slavery yet not quite freedom By calling the freed slaves "contraband" and setting up a whole series of policies to regulate their lives, the federal government in effect said that the former slaves were not quite equal to its white population during the war itself.

During the War and Reconstruction, society was on the brink of a transformation. Slave liberation, freedom fighting by black and white troops and three changes to our Constitution in the passage of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments set the scene for major changes. Some of the changes were short-lived due to social, political and economic entrapment which forced the freedmen back onto the plantation and into sharecropping and a life offering little more than slavery. The federal government, due to its failure to create lasting policy, was at least partly responsible for the failure of Reconstruction.
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